Agricultural History Review, Volume 54 Part 1 (2006), p. 162

The chapters of this book formed the basis of the Ford lectures delivered by Christopher Dyer in the University of Oxford in Hilary Term 2001. Unbeknown to the audience at the time, sections of the chapters were being condensed into lectures at the point of delivery; a mark of Dyer’s skills as an author and lecturer, and testimony to a cool head and nerves of steel. This is a book to be read by anyone with an interest in the later m iddle ages. The medievalist will be stimulated by the novel interpretation of the social forces for change, the modern historian will find the roots of familiar patterns, and the non-specialist will be guided through the events of this period and their significance. The language is self-consciously accessible, jargon is avoided, and technicalities are explained.

The ‘age of transition’ in the title provides the vehicle for an exploration of the social and economic tendencies of the period between 1250 and 1550. Dyer argues convincingly for the continuing validity of the concept of a ‘transition from feudalism to capitalism’ as important shifts occurred in the relationship between lords and tenants, state and subject, agriculture and industry, public and private spheres. These changes were not cyclical as the English society and economy were never the same again. Many of the trends had their roots in a much earlier period, whilst there were also links with the society and economy in the centuries after 1500. He places more emphasis than is customary on the ability of medieval people, especially the peasantry, to bring about change and overcome their problems. There is a conscious move to modify the traditional belief that decisions were made by a powerful elite and change was directed from above.

The book is firmly underpinned by research into a diverse range of different manuscript sources from over thirty archives, printed sources, and a wealth of case studies and monographs. The emphasis is upon sources that relate to the lower sectors of society, providing us with a perspective ‘from the bottom-up’. The research is not confined to documents as it utilizes the evidence from archaeological investigations including a study of existing buildings. All are handled with assurance and employed as detailed examples to illustrate complex patterns and illuminate difficult conceptual themes and theoretical hypotheses.

The Introduction places the book within its broad historical context and outlines the general line of argument and interpretation which are developed in the following six chapters that formed the basis of the lectures. Chapter One presents a particular view of the period which is characterized as being flexible and varied. This ‘new middle ages’ went through a period of commercialization in the thirteenth century, emerged from the shocks of the fourteenth century with an enhanced capacity for change, a weakened aristocracy, a mobile and less restricted peasantry and a lively industrial and urban sector. Moreover, many features of the period, from family structures to farming methods, resembled those prevailing in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Chapter Two, ‘Community and privacy’, engages with the conflicting interpretations of medieval rural life as either one of individualism and private property, or of community and collective welfare and interests. Dyer argues that these could coexist, albeit with different levels of harmony, and examines the problem from the very different situations around 1300 and 1500. Various themes are explored, such as the management of common-field agriculture, enclosure, the role of lords and gentry. It is argued that many of the initiatives came from the peasants themselves.

Chapter Three, ‘Authority and freedom’, is concerned with the impact of lordship and the state on economic productivity. It argues that aristocratic lords were not as influential as they would have wished and the actions of the gentry did not change the economy. The role of legislation and taxation in shaping economic activity is examined. The significance of the state lay in providing a stable context for economic life to prosper. The final section examines the actions of those in social groups just below the gentry and concludes that they were independent-minded, economically-active, related to their community, affluent, and played an important part in bringing about change.

Chapter Four engages with the arguments for a consumer revolution of the eighteenth century to dispel the myth of the ‘medieval void’ in the history of consumption. In doing so it demonstrates that consumption changed significantly between 1375 and 1520 with new patterns emerging in the acquisition and use of material goods which had an impact on the economy. Increased expenditure on consumer goods did not prevent investment. Emphasis is placed on the actions of farmers, artisans and entrepreneurs who financed productive enterprises, peasant investment, and general expenditure on the transport infrastructure of roads and bridges to facilitate trade.

Dyer develops the theme of participation in the market in Chapter Five. He draws our attention to the apparent paradox that in a period of recession, particularly the fifteenth century, individuals may have opportunities despite contraction in the volume of economic activity. Towns retained their relative position in the commercial system, although their populations fell. It was a mature urban system developing in sophistication and adjusting to new economic influences. Dyer warns that if historians are too preoccupied with the old institutions of charters and boroughs, which give the impression of decline, they will miss much of this new growth. In this chapter a key role is ascribed to farmers of the demesne for adapting and responding to the vagaries of the fifteenth-century market and making a success. Their activities were decisive in reorganizing agricultural production and changing the shape of the landscape.

Chapter Six, ‘Work and leisure’, investigates the existence of a proletariat at the end of the middle ages, and considers the nature of work and employment at this time. The author concludes that working for wages was an integral part of the medieval economy, that there was much flexibility in the manner of employment, and neither employers nor employees came from a homogeneous class. Attitudes towards employment did change as a ‘work ethic’ can be identified amongst wage earners who hoped to better themselves. Concepts of leisure and social security, previously considered an early modern phenomenon, were emerging in the later middle ages.

Overall, this is a book that is enjoyable to read, scholarly in its approach, and provides a view of the later middle ages from the bottom up.